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谁能帮我找一篇与微生物有关的英文文章``````

发表时间:2024-07-26 02:26:16 来源:网友投稿

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism

http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9

Amicroorganism(alsocanbespelledasmicroorganism)ormicrobeisanorganismthatismicroscopic(toosmalltobeseenbythenakedhumaneye).Thestudyofmicroorganismsiscalledmicrobiology,asubjectthatbeganwithAntonvanLeeuwenhoek'sdiscoveryofmicroorganismsin1675,usingamicroscopeofhisowndesign.

Microorganismsareincrediblydiverseandincludebacteria,fungi,archaea,andprotists,aswellassomemicroscopicplantsandanimalssuchasplankton,andpopularly-knownanimalssuchastheplanarianandtheamoeba.Theydonotincludevirusesandprions,whicharegenerallyclassifiedasnon-living.Mostmicroorganismsaresingle-celled,orunicellular,butsomemulticellularorganismsaremicroscopic,whilesomeunicellularprotists,andabacteriacalledThiomargaritanamibiensisarevisibletothenakedeye.

Microorganismsliveinallpartsofthebiospherewherethereisliquidwater,includinghotsprings,ontheoceanfloor,highintheatmosphereanddeepinsiderockswithintheEarth'scrust.Microorganismsarecriticaltonutrientrecyclinginecosystemsastheyactasdecomposers.Assomemicroorganismscanfixnitrogen,theyareavitalpartofthenitrogencycle,andrecentstudiesindicatethatairbornemicrobesmayplayaroleinprecipitationandweather.

Microbesarealsoexploitedbypeopleinbiotechnology,bothintraditionalfoodandbeveragepreparation,aswellasmoderntechnologiesbasedongeneticengineering.However,pathogenicmicrobesareharmful,sincetheyinvadeandgrowwithinotherorganisms,causingdiseasesthatkillmillionsofpeople,otheranimals,andplants.

History

Evolution

Single-celledmicroorganismswerethefirstformsoflifetodeveloponearth,approximately3–4billionyearsago.Furtherevolutionwasslow,andforabout3billionyearsinthePrecambrianeon,allorganismsweremicroscopic.So,formostofthehistoryoflifeonEarththeonlyformoflifeweremicroorganisms.Bacteria,algaeandfungihavebeenidentifiedinamberthatis220millionyearsold,whichshowsthatthemorphologyofmicroorganismshaschangedlittlesincethetriassicperiod.

Mostmicroorganismscanreproducerapidlyandmicrobessuchasbacteriacanalsofreelyexchangegenesbyconjugation,transformationandtransductionbetweenwidely-divergentspecies.[10]Thishorizontalgenetransfer,coupledwithahighmutationrateandmanyothermeansofgeneticvariation,allowsmicroorganismstoswiftlyevolve(vianaturalselection)tosurviveinnewenvironmentsandrespondtoenvironmentalstresses.Thisrapidevolutionisimportantinmedicine,asithasledtotherecentdevelopmentof'super-bugs'—pathogenicbacteriathatareresistanttomodernantibiotics.

Pre-Microbiology

Thepossibilitythatmicroorganismsmightexistwasdiscussedformanycenturiesbeforetheiractualdiscoveryinthe17thcentury.ThefirstideasaboutmicroorganismswerethoseoftheRomanscholarMarcusTerentiusVarroinabooktitledOnAgricultureinwhichhewarnsagainstlocatingahomesteadnearswamps:

“…andbecausetherearebredcertainminutecreatureswhichcannotbeseenbytheeyes,whichfloatintheairandenterthebodythroughthemouthandnoseandtherecauseseriousdiseases.”

Thispassageseemstoindicatethattheancientswereawareofthepossibilitythatdiseasescouldbespreadbyyetunseenorganisms.

InTheCanonofMedicine(1020),AbūAlīibnSīnā(Avicenna)statedthatbodilysecretioniscontaminatedbyfoulforeignearthlybodiesbeforebeinginfected.Healsohypothesizedthattuberculosisandotherdiseasesmightbecontagious,i.e.thattheywereinfectiousdiseases,andusedquarantinetolimittheirspread.

WhentheBlackDeathbubonicplaguereachedal-Andalusinthe14thcentury,IbnKhatimawrotethatinfectiousdiseaseswerecausedbycontagiousentitiesthatenterthehumanbody.Later,in1546,GirolamoFracastoroproposedthatepidemicdiseaseswerecausedbytransferableseedlikeentitiesthatcouldtransmitinfectionbydirectorindirectcontact,orevenwithoutcontactoverlongdistances.

Alltheseearlyclaimsabouttheexistenceofmicroorganismswerespeculativeinnatureandnotbasedonanydataorscience.Microorganismswereneitherproven,observed,norcorrectlyandaccuratelydescribeduntilthe17thcentury.Thereasonforthiswasthatalltheseearlyinquirieslackedthemostfundamentaltoolinorderformicrobiologyandbacteriologytoexistasascience,andthatwasthemicroscope.

Discovery

AntonvanLeeuwenhoekwasthefirstpersontoobservemicroorganisms,usingamicroscopeofhisowndesign,therebymakinghimthefirstmicrobiologist.IndoingsoLeeuwenhoekwouldmakeoneofthemostimportantcontributionstobiologyandopenupthefieldsofmicrobiologyandbacteriology.PriortoLeeuwenhoek'sdiscoveryofmicroorganismsin1675,ithadbeenamysteryastowhygrapescouldbeturnedintowine,milkintocheese,orwhyfoodwouldspoil.Leeuwenhoekdidnotmaketheconnectionbetweentheseprocessesandmicroorganisms,butusingamicroscope,hedidestablishthattherewereformsoflifethatwerenotvisibletothenakedeye.Leeuwenhoek'sdiscovery,alongwithsubsequentobservationsbyLazzaroSpallanzaniandLouisPasteur,endedthelong-heldbeliefthatlifespontaneouslyappearedfromnon-livingsubstancesduringtheprocessofspoilage.

LazzarroSpallanzanifoundthatmicroorganismscouldonlysettleinabrothifthebrothwasexposedtotheair.Healsofoundthatboilingthebrothwouldsteriliseitandkillthemicroorganisms.LouisPasteurexpandeduponSpallanzani'sfindingsbyexposingboiledbrothstotheair,invesselsthatcontainedafiltertopreventallparticlesfrompassingthroughtothegrowthmedium,andalsoinvesselswithnofilteratall,withairbeingadmittedviaacurvedtubethatwouldnotallowdustparticlestocomeincontactwiththebroth.Byboilingthebrothbeforehand,Pasteurensuredthatnomicroorganismssurvivedwithinthebrothsatthebeginningofhisexperiment.NothinggrewinthebrothsinthecourseofPasteur'sexperiment.Thismeantthatthelivingorganismsthatgrewinsuchbrothscamefromoutside,assporesondust,ratherthanspontaneouslygeneratedwithinthebroth.Thus,Pasteurdealtthedeathblowtothetheoryofspontaneousgenerationandsupportedgermtheory.

In1876,RobertKochestablishedthatmicrobescancausedisease.HedidthisbyfindingthatthebloodofcattlewhowereinfectedwithanthraxalwayshadlargenumbersofBacillusanthracis.Kochalsofoundthathecouldtransmitanthraxfromoneanimaltoanotherbytakingasmallsampleofbloodfromtheinfectedanimalandinjectingitintoahealthyone,causingthehealthyanimaltobecomesick.Healsofoundthathecouldgrowthebacteriainanutrientbroth,injectitintoahealthyanimal,andcauseillness.Basedupontheseexperiments,hedevisedcriteriaforestablishingacausallinkbetweenamicrobeandadiseaseinwhatarenowknownasKoch'spostulates.Thoughthesepostulatescannotbeappliedinallcases,theydoretainhistoricalimportanceinthedevelopmentofscientificthoughtandcanstillbeusedtoday.

Classificationandstructure

Microorganismscanbefoundalmostanywhereinthetaxonomicorganizationoflifeontheplanet.Bacteriaandarchaeaarealmostalwaysmicroscopic,whileanumberofeukaryotesarealsomicroscopic,includingmostprotists,somefungi,aswellassomeanimalsandplants.Virusesaregenerallyregardedasnotlivingandthereforearenotmicrobes,althoughthefieldofmicrobiologyalsoencompassesthestudyofviruses.

[edit]Prokaryotes

Prokaryotesareorganismsthatlackacellnucleusandtheotherorganellesfoundineukaryotes.Prokaryotesarealmostalwaysunicellular,althoughsomespeciessuchasmyxobacteriacanaggregateintocomplexstructuresaspartoftheirlifecycle.Theseorganismsaredividedintotwogroups,thearchaeaandthebacteria.

Bacteria

BacteriaarethemostdiverseandabundantgroupoforganismsonEarth.Bacteriainhabitpracticallyallenvironmentswheresomeliquidwaterisavailableandthetemperatureisbelow+140°C.Theyarefoundinseawater,soil,air,animals'gastrointestinaltracts,hotspringsandevendeepbeneaththeEarth'scrustinrocks.[20]Practicallyallsurfaceswhichhavenotbeenspeciallysterilizedarecoveredinbacteria.Thenumberofbacteriaintheworldisestimatedtobearoundfivemilliontrilliontrillion,or5×1030.

Bacteriaarepracticallyallinvisibletothenakedeye,withafewextremelyrareexceptions,suchasThiomargaritanamibiensis.Theyareunicellularorganismsandlackmembrane-boundorganelles.TheirgenomeisusuallyasingleloopofDNA,althoughtheycanalsoharborsmallpiecesofDNAcalledplasmids.Theseplasmidscanbetransferredbetweencellsthroughbacterialconjugation.Bacteriaaresurroundedbyacellwall,whichprovidesstrengthandrigiditytotheircells.Theyreproducebybinaryfissionorsometimesbybudding,butdonotundergosexualreproduction.Somespeciesformextraordinarilyresilientspores,butforbacteriathisisamechanismforsurvival,notreproduction.Underoptimalconditionsbacteriacangrowextremelyrapidlyandcandoubleasquicklyasevery10minutes......

微生物是指一切肉眼看不到或看不清楚,因而需要借助显微镜观察的微小生物。微生物包括原核微生物(如细菌)、真核微生物(如真菌、藻类和原虫)和无细胞生物(如病毒)三类。

主要特性

微生物最大的特点,不但在於体积微小,而且在结构上亦相当简单。由於微生物体积极之微小,故相对面积较大,物质吸收快,转化快。微生物在生长与繁殖上亦是很迅速的,而且适应性强。从寒冷的冰川到极酷热的温泉,从极高的山顶到极深的海底,微生物都能够生存。

由於微生物适应性强,又容易在较短时间内积聚非常多的个体(例如10^10个/毫升的数量级),所以容易筛选并分离到突变株。容易得到微生物突变株的性质,给人类利用与开发微生物带来广阔契机,但也是导致抗药性的内在原因。

微生物的代谢

微生物的代谢指微生物(细胞)内发生的全部化学反应。微生物的代谢异常旺盛,这是由於微生物的表面积与体积比很大(约是同等重量的成年人的30万倍),使它们能够迅速与外界环境进行物质交换。

代谢产物微生物在代谢过程中,会产生多种代谢产物。根据代谢产物与微生物生长繁殖的关系,可以分为初级代谢产物和次级代谢产物两类。初级代谢产物是指微生物通过代谢活动产生的、自身生长和繁殖所必须的物质,如氨基酸、核苷酸、多糖、脂质、维生素等。在不同种类的微生物细胞中,初级代谢产物的种类基本相同。次级代谢产物是指微生物生长到一定阶段才产生的化学结构十分复杂,对该微生物无明显生理功能,或并非是微生物生长和繁殖所必须的物质,如抗生素、毒素、激素、色素等。不同种类的微生物所产生的次级代谢产物不相同,它们可能积累在细胞内,也可能排到外环境中。

代谢的调节微生物在长期的进化过程中,形成了一整套完善的代谢调节系统,以保证证代谢活动经济而高效地进行。微生物的代谢调节主要有两种方式:酶合成的调节和酶活性的调节。另外人工控制微生物代谢的措施包括改变微生物遗传特徵,控制生产过程中的各种条件等。

主要分类

微生物主要分为以下几类:(参见生物分类总表)

原核微生物

细菌(Bacteria)

古菌(Archaea)

真核微生物

真菌(Fungi)

原生生物(protozoan)

藻类(algae)

无细胞生物

病毒(virus)

类病毒(virusoid)

拟病毒(viroid)

朊毒体(亦称朊病毒、蛋白质质感染性颗粒)(prion)

微生物在自然界的存在

微生物在自然界中广泛存在,数目巨大。下表为一些生态环境中微生物细胞数目的估计:

密度全球总数

海水108~109L-1约1029

海洋沉积物109g-1约3×1029

动物消化道1011g-1约1025

地表或海底下深处102~108约1030

原核生物共构成全球生物量的25~50%。

微生物的作用

微生物与人类的生产、生活和生存息息相关。有很多食品(如酱油、醋、味精、酒、酸奶、奶酪、蘑菇)、工业品(如皮革、纺织、石化)、药品(如抗生素、疫苗、维生素、生态农药)是依赖于微生物制造的;微生物在矿产探测与开采、废物处理(如水净化、沼气发酵)等各种领域中也发挥重要作用。微生物是自然界唯一认知的固氮者(如大豆根瘤菌)与动植物残体降解者(如纤维素的降解),同时位于常见生物链的首末两端,从而完成碳、氮、硫、磷等生物质在大循环中的衔接。若没有微生物,众多生物就失去必需的营养来源、植物的纤维质残体就无法分解而无限堆积,就没有自然界当前的繁荣与秩序或人类的产生与维续。

另外微生物对地球上气候的变化也起着重要作用。许多微生物直接参与了温室气体的排放或者吸收,而也有很多微生物可以成为未来的生物燃料[1]。

微生物与人类健康

微生物与人类健康密切相关。多数微生物对人体是无害的。实际上人体的外表面(如皮肤)和内表面(如肠道)生活着很多正常、有益的菌群。它们占据这些表面并产生天然的抗生素,抑制有害菌的着落与生长;它们也协助吸收或亲自制造一些人体必需的营养物质,如维生素和氨基酸。这些菌群的失调(如抗生素滥用)可以导致感染发生或营养缺失。但是另一方面,人类与动植物的疾病也有很多是由微生物引起,这些微生物叫做病原微生物(pathogenicmicroorganism)或病原(pathogen)。重要的人类致病微生物列于下表中。

主要的人类致病微生物疾病名称致病原全球感染(携带者)人数每年新发病例数每年死亡人数

结核结核分枝杆菌~20亿人(全球三分之一人口)881万例(2003[1])175万人(2003[2])

艾滋病人类免疫缺陷病毒4200万人550万例310万人

痢疾志贺氏菌、痢疾杆菌、大肠埃希氏杆菌等27亿例190万人

疟疾疟原虫3-5亿例100万人

乙型肝炎乙型肝炎病毒1000-3000万例100万人

麻疹麻疹病毒3000万例90万人

登革热登革病毒2000万例2万4千人

流感流感病毒几乎全部人口300-500万例25万人

黄热病黄热病毒20万例3万人

其他经常听说的致病微生物还有:流行已经完全得到控制或消灭的天花病毒(引起天花)和脊髓灰质炎病毒(导致小儿麻痹症);引起炭疽病的炭疽杆菌;以及近年来显现的萨斯冠状病毒(引起严重急性呼吸道综合症,又名萨斯、也俗称非典型肺炎)和可能将在人类流行的禽流感。

对现代生物学研究与医学技术的贡献

现代生物学的若干基础性的重大发现与理论,是在研究微生物的过程中或以微生物为实验材料与工具取得的。这些理论包括:

证明DNA(脱氧核糖核酸)是遗传信息的载体(三大经典实验:肺炎球菌的转化实验、噬菌体实验、植物病毒的重组实验)

DNA的半保留复制方式(双螺旋的每一条子链分别、都是复制模板)

遗传密码子的解读(64个密码子各对应20种氨基酸及终止信号的哪一种)

基因的转录调节(operon,promoter,operator,repressor,activator的概念与调节方式)

信使RNA的翻译调节(terminator)

等等……(请添加)

现在很多常用、通用的生物学研究技术依赖于微生物,比如:

分子克隆

重组蛋白在细菌或酵母中的表达

很多医学技术也依赖于微生物。比如:

以病毒为载体的基因治疗

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